"This is a fine volume that clarifies, defends, and moves beyond the views that Kim presented in Mind in a Physical World. Chapter by chapter, it is philosophically interesting and engagingly written."--Karen Bennett, Princeton University

Physicalism, or Something Near Enough

Princeton University Press

Chapter One

OUR TWO MIND-BODY PROBLEMS

SCHOPENHAUER famously called the mind-body problem a "Weltknoten," or "world-knot," and he was surely right. The problem, however, is not really a single problem; it is a cluster of connected problems about the relationship between mind and matter. What these problems are depends on a broader framework of philosophical and scientific assumptions and presumptions within which the questions are posed and possible answers formulated. For the contemporary physicalist, there are two problems that truly make the mind-body problem a Weltknoten, an intractable and perhaps ultimately insoluble puzzle. They concern mental causation and consciousness. The problem of mental causation is to answer this question: How can the mind exert its causal powers in a world that is fundamentally physical? The problem of consciousness is to answer the following question: How can there be such a thing as consciousness in a physical world, a world consisting ultimately of nothing but bits of matter distributed over space-time behaving in accordance with physical law? As it turns out, the two problems are interconnected-the two knots are intertwined, and this makes it all the more difficult to unsnarl either of them.

MENTAL CAUSATION AND CONSCIOUSNESS

Devising an account of mental causation has been, for the past three decades, one of the main preoccupations of philosophers of mind who are committed to physicalism in one form or another. The problem of course is not new: as every student of western philosophy knows, Descartes, who arguably invented the mind-body problem, was forcefully confronted by his contemporaries on this issue. But this does not mean that Descartes's problem is our problem. His problem, as his contemporaries saw it, was to show how his all-too-commonsensical thesis of mind-body interaction was tenable within an ontology of two radically diverse substances, minds and bodies. In his replies, Descartes hemmed and hawed, but in the end was unable to produce an effective response. (In a later chapter we will discuss in some detail the difficulties that mental causation presents to the substance dualist.) It is noteworthy that many of Descartes's peers chose to abandon mental causation rather than the dualism of two substances. Malebranche's occasionalism denies outright that mental causation ever takes place, and Spinoza's double-aspect theory seems to leave no room for genuine causal transactions between mind and matter. Leibniz is well known for having denied causal relations between individual substances altogether, arguing that an illusion of causality arises out of preestablished harmony among the monads. In retrospect, it is more than a little amazing to realize that Descartes was an exception rather than the rule, among the great Rationalists of his day, in defending mental causation as an integral element of his view of the mind. Perhaps most philosophers of this time were perfectly comfortable with the idea that God is the sole causal agent in the entire world, and, with God monopolizing the world's causal power, the epiphenomenalism of human minds just was not something to worry about. In any case, it is interesting to note that mental causation is regarded with much greater seriousness by us today than it apparently was by most philosophers in Descartes' time.

In any case, substance dualism is not the source of our current worries about mental causation; substantival minds are no longer a live option for most of us. What is new and surprising about the current problem of mental causation is the fact that it has arisen out of the very heart of physicalism. This means that giving up the Cartesian conception of minds as immaterial substances in favor of a materialist ontology does not make the problem go away. On the contrary, our basic physicalist commitments, as I will argue, can be seen as the source of our current difficulties.

Let us first review some of the reasons for wanting to save mental causation-why it is important to us that mental causation is real. First and foremost, the possibility of human agency, and hence our moral practice, evidently requires that our mental states have causal effects in the physical world. In voluntary actions our beliefs and desires, or intentions and decisions, must somehow cause our limbs to move in appropriate ways, thereby causing the objects around us to be rearranged. That is how we manage to navigate around the objects in our surroundings, find food and shelter, build bridges and cities, and destroy the rain forests. Second, the possibility of human knowledge presupposes the reality of mental causation: perception, our sole window on the world, requires the causation of perceptual experiences and beliefs by objects and events around us. Reasoning, by which we acquire new knowledge and belief from the existing fund of what we already know or believe, involves the causation of new belief by old belief. Memory is a causal process involving experiences, physical storage of the information contained therein, and its retrieval. If you take away perception, memory, and reasoning, you pretty much take away all of human knowledge. Even more broadly, there seem to be compelling reasons for thinking that our capacity to think about and refer to things and phenomena of the world-that is, our capacity for intentionality and speech-depends on our being, or having been, in appropriate cognitive relations with things outside us, and that these cognitive relations essentially involve causal relations. To move on, it seems plain that the possibility of psychology as a science capable of generating law-based explanations of human behavior depends on the reality of mental causation: mental phenomena must be capable of functioning as indispensable links in causal chains leading to physical behavior, like movements of the limbs and vibrations of the vocal cord. A science that invokes mental phenomena in its explanations is presumptively committed to their causal efficacy; if a phenomenon is to have an explanatory role, its presence or absence must make a difference-a causal difference. Determinism threatens human agency and skepticism puts human knowledge in peril. The stakes are higher with mental causation, for this problem threatens to take away both agency and cognition.

Let us now briefly turn to consciousness, an aspect of mentality that was oddly absent from both philosophy and scientific psychology for much of the century that has just passed. As everyone knows, consciousness has returned as a major problematic in both philosophy and science, and the last two decades has seen a phenomenal growth and proliferation of research programs and publications on consciousness, not to mention symposia and conferences all over the world.

For most of us, there is no need to belabor the centrality of consciousness to our conception of ourselves as creatures with minds. But I want to point to the ambivalent, almost paradoxical, attitude that philosophers have displayed toward consciousness. As just noted, consciousness had been virtually banished from the philosophical and scientific scene for much of the last century, and consciousness-bashing still goes on in some quarters, with some reputable philosophers arguing that phenomenal consciousness, or "qualia," is a fiction of bad philosophy. And there are philosophers and psychologists who, while they recognize phenomenal consciousness as something real, do not believe that a complete science of human behavior, including cognitive psychology and neuroscience, has a place for consciousness, or that there is a need to invoke consciousness in an explanatory/predictive theory of cognition and behavior. Although consciousness research is thriving, much of cognitive science seems still in the grip of what may be called methodological epiphenomenalism.

Contrast this lowly status of consciousness in science and metaphysics with its lofty standing in moral philosophy and value theory. When philosophers discuss the nature of the intrinsic good, or what is worthy of our desire and volition for its own sake, the most prominently mentioned candidates are things like pleasure, absence of pain, enjoyment, and happiness-states that are either states of conscious experience or states that presuppose a capacity for conscious experience. Our attitude toward sentient creatures, with a capacity for pain and pleasure, is crucially different in moral terms from our attitude toward insentient objects. To most of us, a fulfilling life, a life worth living, is one that is rich and full in qualitative consciousness. We would regard a life as impoverished and not fully satisfying if it never included experiences of things like the smell of the sea in a cool morning breeze, the lambent play of sunlight on brilliant autumn foliage, the fragrance of a field of lavender in bloom, and the vibrant, layered soundscape projected by a string quartet. Conversely, a life filled with intense chronic pains, paralyzing fears and anxieties, an unremitting sense of despair and hopelessness, or a constant monotone depression would strike us as terrible and intolerable, and perhaps not even worth living. In his speech accepting the Nobel Prize in 1904, Ivan Pavlov, whose experiments on animal behavior conditioning probably gave a critical impetus to the behaviorist movement, had this to say: "In point of fact, only one thing in life is of actual interest for us-our psychical experience." It is an ironic fact that the felt qualities of conscious experience, perhaps the only things that ultimately matter to us, are often relegated in the rest of philosophy to the status of "secondary qualities," in the shadowy zone between the real and the unreal, or even jettisoned outright as artifacts of confused minds.

What then is the philosophical problem of consciousness? In The Principles of Psychology, published in 1890, William James wrote:

According to the assumptions of this book, thoughts accompany the brain's workings, and those thoughts are cognitive of realities. The whole relation is one which we can only write down empirically, confessing that no glimmer of explanation of it is yet in sight. That brains should give rise to a knowing consciousness at all, this is the one mystery which returns, no matter of what sort the consciousness and of what sort the knowledge may be. Sensations, aware of mere qualities, involve the mystery as much as thoughts, aware of complex systems, involve it.

In this passage, James is recognizing, first of all, that thoughts and sensations, that is, various modes of mentality and consciousness, arise out of neural processes in the brain. But we can only make a list of, or "write down empirically" as he says, the observed de facto correlations that connect thoughts and sensations to types of neural processes. Making a running list of psychoneural correlations does not come anywhere near gaining an explanatory insight into why there are such correlations; according to James, "no glimmer of explanation" is "yet in sight" as to why these particular correlations hold, or why indeed the brain should give rise to thoughts and consciousness at all.

Why does pain arise when the C-fibers are activated (according to philosophers' fictional neurophysiology), and not under another neural condition? Why doesn't the sensation of itch or tickle arise from C-fiber activation? Why should any conscious experience arise when C-fibers fire? Why should there be something like consciousness in a world that is ultimately nothing but bits of matter scattered over spacetime regions? These questions are precisely the explanatory/ predictive challenges posed by the classic emergentists, like Samuel Alexander, C. Lloyd Morgan, and C. D. Broad-challenges that they despaired of meeting.

These, then, are the problems of mental causation and consciousness. Each of them poses a fundamental challenge to the physicalist worldview. How can the mind exercise its causal powers in a causally closed physical world? Why is there, and how can there be, such a thing as the mind, or consciousness, in a physical world? We will see that these two problems, mental causation and consciousness, are intertwined, and that, in a sense, they make each other insoluble.

I now want to set out in some detail how the problem of mental causation arises within a physicalist setting.

THE SUPERVENIENCE/EXCLUSION ARGUMENT

Mind-body supervenience can usefully be thought of as defining minimal physicalism-that is, it is a shared minimum commitment of all positions that are properly called physicalist, though it may not be all that physicalism requires. As is well known, there are many different ways of formulating a super-venience thesis. For present purposes we will not need an elaborate statement of exactly what mind-body supervenience amounts to. It will suffice to understand it as the claim that what happens in our mental life is wholly dependent on, and determined by, what happens with our bodily processes. In this sense, mind-body supervenience is a commitment of all forms of reductionist physicalism (or type physicalism), such as the classic Smart-Feigl mind-brain identity thesis. Moreover, it is also a commitment of functionalism about mentality, arguably still the orthodoxy on the mind-body problem. Functionalism views mental properties as defined in terms of their causal roles in behavioral and physical contexts, and it is evidently committed to the thesis that systems that are alike in intrinsic physical properties must be alike in respect of their mental or psychological character. The reason is simple: we expect identically constituted physical systems to be causally indistinguishable in all physical and behavioral contexts. It is noteworthy that emergentism, too, appears to be committed to supervenience: If two systems are wholly alike physically, we should expect the same mental properties to emerge, or fail to emerge, in each; physically indiscernible systems cannot differ in respect of their emergent properties. Supervenience of emergents in this sense was explicitly noted and endorsed by C. D. Broad.

Mind-body supervenience has been embraced by some philosophers as an attractive option because it has seemed to them a possible way of protecting the autonomy of the mental domain without lapsing back into antiphysicalist dualism. Just as normative/moral properties are thought to supervene on descriptive/nonmoral properties without being reducible to them, the psychological character of a creature may supervene on and yet remain distinct and autonomous from its physical nature. In many ways, this is an appealing picture: while acknowledging the primacy and priority of the physical domain, it highlights the distinctiveness of creatures with mentality-creatures with consciousness, purposiveness, and rationality. It reaffirms our commonsense belief in our own specialness as beings endowed with intelligent and creative capacities of the kind unseen in the rest of nature. Further, this view provides the burgeoning science of psychology and cognition with a philosophical rationale as an autonomous science in its own right: it investigates these irreducible psychological properties, functions, and capacities, discovering laws and regularities governing them and generating law-based explanations and predictions. It is a science with its own proper domain untouched by other sciences, especially those at the lower levels, like biology, chemistry, and physics.

This seductive picture, however, turns out to be a piece of wishful thinking, when we consider the problem of mental causation-how it is possible, on such a picture, for mentality to have causal powers, powers to influence the course of natural events. Several principles, all of which seem unexceptionable, especially for the physicalist, conspire to make trouble for mental causation. The first of these is the principle that the physical world constitutes a causally closed domain. For our purposes we may state it as follows:

The causal closure of the physical domain. If a physical event has a cause at t, then it has a physical cause at t.

(Continues...)

Excerpted from Physicalism, or Something Near Enoughby Jaegwon Kim Copyright © 2005 by Princeton University. Excerpted by permission.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site.